Pull up a seat with FS2 Streams

Thu, 26 Feb 2026 00:00:00 +0000

I usually put FS2 amongst my top favourite libraries in my career. This streaming library powers some of the most popular Scala Typelevel libraries. I often encounter streaming design problems that make me think to myself, “you can do this with a couple lines of FS2”. Enough gushing. I typically find that folks who come across FS2 struggle with creating a correct mental model for how a stream in FS2 works.

This article assumes you know about Cats-Effect and FS2 already and would like to dive deeper. Understanding how FS2 works requires a mental model for how suspended side effects work too.

On the surface, an FS2 Stream looks and feels a lot like a collection (like List). It supports common collections operations like map, flatMap, or filter. In fact, when we go to complete a stream, we can convert our stream to a host of different collection types.

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val stream: Stream[F, Int] = ???

stream.compile.toList // F[List[Int]]
stream.compile.toVector // F[Vector[Int]]

This property of Streams makes it easy to understand the API at first, but can make it difficult to understand how it works internally. A Stream differs from a List in that it incorporates an effect type (F[_]) as part of its definition (Stream[F, A]). So why do we need an effect type for our stream definition? A Stream does not necesserily hold all elements in memory at once. For example, if we stream an HTTP response, not all body bytes arrive from the network at the same time.

When using an effectful type (like IO), a Stream[IO, A] actually represents a single IO[Option[A]] that we call repeatedly for new results. We refer to this as a “pull-based” stream because we need to perform an action to retrieve the next elements of the stream. This works the same as Scala’s Iterator class when lazy generating results. As this diagram shows, we don’t materialise the elements of the Stream until we reach them.

Another important thing to note about Streams; they don’t (always) contain single elements. Instead, they contain multiple groups of elements (Chunks), which allows individual pulls to return more than one element. Useful when working with things like response payloads where consuming bodies byte by byte could harm performance. At one time a Stream only holds a single chunk. It pulls a new chunk as necessary when we consume the stream.

Pull API

Armed with this understanding of how a Stream works we can actually access the underlying representation type, Pull. Given an arbitrary stream we can call .pull to convert a Stream into a Pull. This type covers some internal implementation details but, in a nutshell, a Pull monad represents a single “step” of the underlying representation. For example, a single Pull might represent polling a connection for new response bytes.

Technically .pull returns a ToPull type. Again, this type covers some internal implementation details but acts as a springboard for calls like uncons or peek, which can optionally consume the current chunk. Operations on this type always yield a Pull so for our purposes I will focus on that.

A Pull type can cause confusion because it has three type parameters.

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 Pull[F, O, R]
 ▲ ▲ ▲
 │ │ └─────── Return Type
 │ │
 │ └────────── Output Type
 │
 └───────────── Effect Type

The effect type simply represents the monad in use (e.g. IO). The output type represents the type of the parent Stream. The return type represents a “working” type to allow use to compose multiple Pulls into a single stream step. We can only collapse Pulls back to a normal Stream if they return a Unit type (signalling they are “done”), using the Pull.stream API. This distinction can make Pull a confusing type to work with at first.

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val pull: Pull[IO, String, Int] =
 for {
 i <- Pull.pure(1)
 _ <- Pull.output1(i.toString)
 } yield i + 1

val stream: Stream[IO, String] = pull >> Pull.done

Pull.output1 emits the given value as an element in our stream. Pull.done just represents a Pull[F, Nothing, Unit] and acts as a convenient way of signalling the current pull has finished outputting any elements.

You can define custom steps on an existing Stream by using .repeatPull. This gives you a high degree of control over when and how we pull elements from the upstream. This function provides a base ToPull and asks you to return an Option[Stream[F, A]] to indicate if and how the stream should continue. An interesting property of this stage is that we don’t have to return elements from our upstream definition. We can insert new elements or switch to a different stream entirely.

Motivation and Summary

FS2’s Stream already provides a lot of powerful abstractions for working on a stream without dipping into the pull API, so why might you want to?

Performant consumption of chunks. Individually stream operations can provide either full chunks (via .chunks) or single elements. If you ever want to combine elements across chunks or dynamically merge chunks then you will need to pull and merge chunks yourself.
Single step logic. Sometimes you might want to partially consume a stream before making a decision on how to process the full stream. The pull API allows you to arbitrarily consume the Stream without committing to a single strategy.
Full control over execution. You might have a sensitive upstream API where you want to carefully choose when and how effects get executed.

Understanding how a Stream works underneath can help you intuit what a stream can (and can’t) do, as well as diagnosing any performance issues. The pull API unlocks performance improvements around chunk handling that the typical Stream interface might not provide. This might seem like a dense topic at first, but sometimes the best way to learn something means using it. Then you should find the concepts click into place (and if they don’t, I apologise unreservedly).

Fs2 on Adam J King

Pull up a seat with FS2 Streams

Pull API

Motivation and Summary